Physiology endocrine thyroid pituitary pdf

The pineal gland is pine-cone-shaped and only about 1 cm in diameter. Melatonin: communicates information about environmental lighting to various parts of the body. Serotonin: a neurotransmitter that regulates intestinal movements and affects appetite, mood, sleep, anger, and metabolism.

They secrete parathyroid PTH which plays a role in the metabolism of phosphorus. Too little results in cramping; too much results in osteoporosis or kidney stones. The islets of Langerhans are small clusters of cells located in the pancreas. Beta cells secrete the hormone insulin, which is essential for Alpha cells facilitate the maintenance of normal the breakdown of blood sugar levels.

Inadequate glycogen to glucose. This elevates the blood sugar. Delta cells suppress the release of glucagon and insulin. The triangular- shaped adrenal glands are located on the top of each kidney. The inside is called the medulla and the outside layer is called the cortex. Androgens: several hormones including testosterone; they promote the development of secondary sex characteristics in the male.

Dopamine is used to treat shock. It dilates the arteries, elevates systolic blood pressure, increases cardiac output, and increases urinary output. Epinephrine is also called adrenalin.

It elevates systolic blood pressure, increases heart rate and cardiac output, speeds up the release of glucose from the liver… giving a spurt of energy, dilates the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates the pupils to see more clearly. It is often used to counteract an allergic reaction. Norepinephrine, like epinephrine, is released when the body is under stress. As a drug, however, it in the actually triggers a drop in heart rate. The ovaries produce several estrogen hormones and progesterone.

These hormones prepare the uterus for pregnancy, promote the development of mammary glands, play a role in sex drive, and develop secondary sex characteristics in the female. Estrogen is essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of female sex organs.

The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone. It is essential for normal growth and development of the male sex organs. Testosterone is responsible for the erection of the penis. During pregnancy, the placenta serves as an endocrine gland. It produces chorionic gonadotropin hormone, estrogen, and progesterone. The mucosa of the pyloric area of the stomach secretes the hormone gastrin, which stimulates the production of gastric acid for digestion.

The mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum secretes the hormone secretin, which stimulates pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal secretion. The thymus gland has two lobes, and is part of the lymphatic system. It is a ductless gland, and secretes thymosin. Open navigation menu. Close suggestions Search Search. User Settings. Skip carousel. Carousel Previous.

Carousel Next. What is Scribd? Explore Ebooks. Bestsellers Editors' Picks All Ebooks. The activity of the thyroid gland is predominantly regulated by the concentration of the pituitary glycoprotein hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH.

In the absence of the pituitary or of thyrotroph function, hypothyroidism ensues. Thus, regulation of thyroid function in normal individuals is to a large extent determined by the factors which regulate the synthesis and secretion of TSH.

PLoS One. Differential expression of the thyrostimulin subunits, glycoprotein alpha2 and beta5 in the rat pituitary. J Mol Endocrinol. Wondisford FE. The thyroid axis just got more complicated. Thyrostimulin, but not thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH , acts as a paracrine regulator to activate the TSH receptor in mammalian ovary.

Reichlin S, Utiger RD. Regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis in man: relationship of TSH concentration to concentration of free and total thyroxine in plasma. L-thyroxine directly affects expression of thyroid hormone-sensitive genes: regulatory effect of RXRbeta. Mol Cell Endocrinol. Regulation of thyrotropin biosynthesis.

Discordant effect of thyroid hormone on alpha and beta subunit mRNA levels. Transcriptional regulation of the thyrotropin subunit genes by thyroid hormone. Augmentation of pituitary thyrotrophin response to thyrotrophin releasing hormone during subphysiological tri-iodothyroinine therapy in hypothyroidism. The regulation and organization of thyroid stimulating hormone genes. Thyroid hormone control of thyrotropin gene expression in rat anterior pituitary cells.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the activity of the rat thyrotropin beta-subunit gene promoter transfected into pituitary cells. Negative regulation of the thyroid-stimulating hormone alpha gene by thyroid hormone: receptor interaction adjacent to the TATA box. Thyroid hormone regulates expression of the thyrotropin beta-subunit gene from both transcription start sites in the mouse and rat.

Thyroid hormone regulation of thyrotropin gene expression. Binding of thyroid hormone receptors to the rat thyrotropin-beta gene. Thyroid hormone inhibition of human thyrotropin beta-subunit gene expression is mediated by a cis-acting element located in the first exon. A detailed functional and structural analysis of a major thyroid hormone inhibitory element in the human thyrotropin beta-subunit gene. Effects of varying the position of thyroid hormone response elements within the rat growth hormone promoter: implications for positive and negative regulation by 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine.

Thyroid hormone regulation of the rat glycoprotein hormone alpha-subunit gene promoter activity. Thyroid hormones regulate rat thyrotropin beta gene promoter activity expressed in GH3 cells. Characteristics of a negative thyroid hormone response element. Transcriptional regulation of thyrotropin subunit genes by thyrotropin-releasing hormone and dopamine in pituitary cell culture.

A unique role of the beta-2 thyroid hormone receptor isoform in negative regulation by thyroid hormone. Mapping of a novel amino-terminal domain important for ligand-independent activation.

Abnormal heart rate and body temperature in mice lacking thyroid hormone receptor alpha 1. Recessive resistance to thyroid hormone in mice lacking thyroid hormone receptor beta: evidence for tissue-specific modulation of receptor function. Thyrotropin regulation by thyroid hormone in thyroid hormone receptor beta-deficient mice. Divergent roles for thyroid hormone receptor beta isoforms in the endocrine axis and auditory system.

Selective pituitary resistance to thyroid hormone produced by expression of a mutant thyroid hormone receptor beta gene in the pituitary gland of transgenic mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. Different functions for the thyroid hormone receptors TRalpha and TRbeta in the control of thyroid hormone production and post-natal development. Mice devoid of all known thyroid hormone receptors are viable but exhibit disorders of the pituitary-thyroid axis, growth, and bone maturation.

Genes Dev. J Endocrinol. Dominant inhibition of thyroid hormone action selectively in the pituitary of thyroid hormone receptor-beta null mice abolishes the regulation of thyrotropin by thyroid hormone.

Retinoic acid selectively stimulates growth hormone secretion and messenger ribonucleic acid levels in rat pituitary cells. AP-1 antagonizes thyroid hormone receptor action on the thyrotropin beta-subunit gene. Thyroid hormone receptor DNA binding is required for both positive and negative gene regulation. Thyroid-hormone-dependent negative regulation of thyrotropin beta gene by thyroid hormone receptors: study with a new experimental system using CV1 cells.

Biochem J. Divergent effects of 9-cis-retinoic acid receptor on positive and negative thyroid hormone receptor-dependent gene expression. Ligand-dependent antagonism by retinoid X receptors of inhibitory thyroid hormone response elements. The rat TSHbeta gene contains distinct response elements for regulation by retinoids and thyroid hormone. The thyrotrope-restricted isoform of the retinoid-X receptor-gamma1 mediates 9-cis-retinoic acid suppression of thyrotropin-beta promoter activity.

Fundamentally distinct roles of thyroid hormone receptor isoforms in a thyrotroph cell line are due to differential DNA binding. Novel mechanism of positive versus negative regulation by thyroid hormone receptor beta1 TRbeta1 identified by genome-wide profiling of binding sites in mouse liver. Molecular aspects of thyroid hormone actions. Trans Assoc Am Physicians.

Pfahl M. Enrichment of rat anterior pituitary cell types by metrizamide density gradient centrifugation. Farquhar R, Rinehart J. Cytological alterations in the anterior pituitary gland following thyroidectomy.

Relationships between circulating and intracellular thyroid hormones: physiological and clinical implications. Effect of hypothyroidism and thyroid hormone replacement in vivo on pituitary cytoplasmic concentrations of thyrotropin-beta and alpha-subunit messenger ribonucleic acids. Pituitary nuclear 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine and thyrotropin secretion: an explanation for the effect of thyroxine.

Peripheral metabolism of homologous thyrotropin in euthyroid and hypothyroid rats: acute effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine. A study on the interaction of the thyrotropin-releasing factor and L-triiodothyronine: effects of puromycin and cycloheximide.

Studies on the mechanism of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine-induced suppression of secretagogue-induced thyrotropin release in vitro. Phorbol esters as probes of the regulation of thyrotropin secretion.

Evidence against a major role of L-thyroxine at the pituitary level: studies in rats treated with iopanoic acid telepaque. Flavonoid administration immediately displaces thyroxine T4 from serum transthyretin, increases serum free T4, and decreases serum thyrotropin in the rat. Clin Chem. Acute and chronic responses to iodine deficiency in rats. Serum triiodothyronine, thyroxine and thyroid-stimulating hormone in endemic goiter: a comparison of goitrous and nongoitrous subjects in New Guinea.

Spectrum of pituitary alterations with mild and severe thyroid impairment. Wennlund A. Acta Endocrinol Copenh. Jackson IM. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Guillemin R.

Hypothalamic hormones a. Proceedings: Localization of thyrotrophin releasing hormone in the spinal cord of the rat by immunohisto-chemistry and radioimmunoassay. High concentration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in pancreatic islets. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in normal thyroid parafollicular cells. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH gene expression in the anterior pituitary. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the anterior pituitary.

Evidence for paracrine and autocrine regulation. Bilek R. TRH-like peptides in prostate gland and other tissues. Physiol Res. Fekete C, Lechan RM. Negative feedback regulation of hypophysiotropic thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH synthesizing neurons: role of neuronal afferents and type 2 deiodinase. Front Neuroendocrinol. Glucocorticoids modulate the biosynthesis and processing of prothyrotropin releasing-hormone proTRH. Structure of the gene encoding rat thyrotropin releasing hormone.

Assignment of human preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH gene to chromosome 3. Somat Cell Mol Genet. Processing of thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone pro-TRH generates a biologically active peptide, prepro-TRH- , which regulates TRH-induced thyrotropin secretion. Pekary AE. Is Ps4 prepro-TRH [] more than an enhancer for thyrotropin-releasing hormone?

Nillni EA. Neuroregulation of ProTRH biosynthesis and processing. A cryptic peptide of thyrotropin-releasing hormone prohormone demonstrates biological activity in vivo and in vitro. A cryptic peptide from the preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone precursor stimulates thyrotropin gene expression.

The biology of pro-thyrotropin-releasing hormone-derived peptides. The corticotropin-release inhibitory factor hypothesis: a review of the evidence for the existence of inhibitory as well as stimulatory hypophysiotropic regulation of adrenocorticotropin secretion and biosynthesis. Jessop DS. Review: Central non-glucocorticoid inhibitors of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Thyroid hormones regulate levels of thyrotropin-releasing-hormone mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus. Thyroid hormone regulates TRH biosynthesis in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat hypothalamus. Triiodothyronine exerts direct cell-specific regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus is dependent upon feedback regulation by both triiodothyronine and thyroxine.

Beta 1 isoform-specific regulation of a triiodothyronine-induced gene during cerebellar development. Suppression of thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression by interleukinbeta in the rat: implications for nonthyroidal illness.

The thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene cloning, characterization, and transcriptional regulation in the central nervous system, heart, and testis. Critical role for thyroid hormone receptor beta2 in the regulation of paraventricular thyrotropin-releasing hormone neurons. The regional hypothalamic distribution of type II 5'-monodeiodinase in euthyroid and hypothyroid rats.

Brain Res. Hypothalamic tanycytes: a key component of brain-endocrine interaction. Int Rev Cytol. Thyroid hormone transporters in health and disease. Pharmacol Rev.

Assignment of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene TRH to human chromosome 3q Cytogenet Cell Genet. Minireview: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and the thyroid hormone feedback mechanism. Dominant role of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Evidence for thyrotropin-releasing hormone and glucocorticoid receptor-immunoreactive neurons in various preoptic and hypothalamic nuclei of the male rat. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin-releasing hormone--what's the message?

Glucocorticoids stimulate thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in cultured hypothalamic neurons. Requirement of thyrotropin-releasing hormone for the postnatal functions of pituitary thyrotrophs: ontogeny study of congenital tertiary hypothyroidism in mice. Expression cloning of a cDNA encoding the mouse pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.

Molecular cloning and functional expression of a human thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH receptor gene. Biochim Biophys Acta. Bilek R, Starka L. A novel mechanism for isolated central hypothyroidism: inactivating mutations in the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene.

Collu R. Genetic aspects of central hypothyroidism. J Endocrinol Invest. A family with complete resistance to thyrotropin-releasing hormone.

Gershengorn MC. Bihormonal regulation of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor in mouse pituitary thyrotropic tumor cells in culture.

Fujimoto J, Gershengorn MC. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone action: mechanism of calcium-mediated stimulation of prolactin secretion. Effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone on phosphoinositides and cytoplasmic free calcium in thyrotropic pituitary cells.

Mechanism of membrane electrical response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in Xenopus oocytes injected with GH3 pituitary cell messenger ribonucleic acid. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation does not elevate intracellular cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate in cells expressing high levels of receptors.

Martin TF. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone rapidly activates the phosphodiester hydrolysis of polyphosphoinositides in GH3 pituitary cells. Evidence for the role of a polyphosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C in hormone action.

Ashworth R, Hinkle PM. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone-induced intracellular calcium responses in individual rat lactotrophs and thyrotrophs. Pre-translational and post-translational regulation of TSH synthesis in normal and neoplastic thyrotrophs. Horm Res. Thyrotropin TSH beta-subunit gene expression--an example for the complex regulation of pituitary hormone genes.

Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. The thyrotropin-releasing hormone-degrading ectoenzyme: the third element of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone-signaling system.

Hormonal regulation of the thyrotropin beta-subunit gene by phosphorylation of the pituitary-specific transcription factor Pit Thyrotropin releasing hormone stimulates transient phosphorylation of the tissue-specific transcription factor, Pit Heritable disorders of pituitary development. The Pit-1 transcription factor gene is a candidate for the murine Snell dwarf mutation.

Mutation of the POU-specific domain of Pit-1 and hypopituitarism without pituitary hypoplasia. A mutation in the POU-homeodomain of Pit-1 responsible for combined pituitary hormone deficiency. Cretinism with combined hormone deficiency caused by a mutation in the PIT1 gene. Nat Genet. Pit-1 and hypopituitarism. A novel nonsense mutation in the Pit-1 gene: evidence for a gene dosage effect.

Novel mutations within the POU1F1 gene associated with variable combined pituitary hormone deficiency. J Endocr Soc. Role of Pit-1 in the gene expression of growth hormone, prolactin, and thyrotropin. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. Analysis of Pit-1 in regulating mouse TSH beta promoter activity in thyrotropes. A thyrotrope-specific variant of Pit-1 transactivates the thyrotropin beta promoter. The combination of Pit-1 and Pit-1T have a synergistic stimulatory effect on the thyrotropin beta-subunit promoter but not the growth hormone or prolactin promoters.

A novel C-terminal domain in the thyroid hormone receptor selectively mediates thyroid hormone inhibition. Determinants of thyrotrope-specific thyrotropin beta promoter activation. Cooperation of Pit-1 with another factor. Pit-1 and GATA-2 interact and functionally cooperate to activate the thyrotropin beta-subunit promoter. P-Lim, a LIM homeodomain factor, is expressed during pituitary organ and cell commitment and synergizes with Pit Pituitary lineage determination by the Prophet of Pit-1 homeodomain factor defective in Ames dwarfism.

Familial combined pituitary hormone deficiency due to a novel mutation R99Q in the hot spot region of Prophet of Pit-1 presenting as constitutional growth delay. Arimura A, Schally AV. Increase in basal and thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH -stimulated secretion of thyrotropin TSH by passive immunization with antiserum to somatostatin in rats. Thyrotropin-secreting pituitary tumors. A comparison of changes in plasma thyrotropin beta- and alpha-subunits, and mouse thyrotropic tumor thyrotropin beta- and alpha-subunit mRNA concentrations after in vivo dexamethasone or T3 administration.

J Investig Med. Hormonal regulation of thyrotrophin synthesis and secretion. Horm Metab Res Suppl. The thyroid hormone receptor binds with opposite transcriptional effects to a common sequence motif in thyroid hormone and estrogen response elements.

Inhibition by somatostatin of basal levels of serum thyrotropin TSH in normal men. Somatostatin and the 24 h levels of serum TSH, T3, T4, and reverse T3 in normals, diabetics and patients treated for myxoedema. Studies on the conditions determining the inhibitory effect of somatostatin on adrenocorticotropin, prolactin and thyrotropin release by cultured rat pituitary cells.

Horm Metab Res. Response of thyrotropin-secreting pituitary adenomas to a long-acting somatostatin analogue. Treatment of hyperthyroidism due to inappropriate secretion of thyrotropin with the somatostatin analog SMS Reisine T, Bell GI. Molecular biology of somatostatin receptors. Inhibitory effect of somatostatin on vagal motoneurons in the rat brain stem in vitro. Am J Physiol. Suppression of insulin release by galanin and somatostatin is mediated by a G-protein.

Involvement of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor, somatostatin receptor subtype 2 and corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor type 1 in the control of chicken thyrotropin secretion. Melanin-concentrating hormone MCH suppresses thyroid stimulating hormone TSH release, in vivo and in vitro, via the hypothalamus and the pituitary.

Fukuda H, Greer MA. The effect of basal hypothalamic deafferentation on the nycthemeral rhythm of plasma TSH. Roelfsema F, Veldhuis JD. Thyrotropin secretion patterns in health and disease. Interconnection between circadian clocks and thyroid function. L-DOPA suppression of thyrotropin-releasing hormone response in man. Dopamine affects basal and augmented pituitary hormone secretion.

Dopamine stimulates release of thyrotrophin-releasing hormone from perfused intact rat hypothalamus via hypothalamic D2-receptors. J Neuroendocrinol. On the role of the central noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems in the regulation of TSH secretion in the rat. Differential effects of pharmacological manipulations of central alpha 1- and alpha 2-adrenergic receptors on the secretion of thyrotropin and growth hormone in male rats.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH action in mouse thyrotropic tumor cells in culture: evidence against a role for adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate as a mediator of TRH-stimulated thyrotropin release.

Alpha 1-adrenoreceptors and alpha 1-adrenoreceptor-mediated thyrotropin release in cultures of euthyroid and hypothyroid rat anterior pituitary cells.

Central irisin administration suppresses thyroid hormone production but increases energy consumption in rats. Neurosci Lett. The role of opiates and endogenous opioid peptides in the regulation of rat TSH secretion. Effects of naloxone infusions on pulsatile thyrotropin secretion. Further studies on the role of cholecystokinin-A and B receptors in secretion of anterior pituitary hormones in male rats.

Life Sci. Neuropeptide Y has a central inhibitory action on the hypothalamic- pituitary-thyroid axis. Ciosek J, Stempniak B. The influence of vasopressin or oxytocin on thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid hormones' concentrations in blood plasma of euthyroid rats.

J Physiol Pharmacol. Effect of galanin on basal and stimulated secretion of prolactin, gonadotropins, thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in humans. Leptin regulates prothyrotropin-releasing hormone biosynthesis.

Evidence for direct and indirect pathways. Regulation of in vivo TSH secretion by leptin. Regul Pept. Leptin, nutrition, and the thyroid: the why, the wherefore, and the wiring. Human recombinant interleukin-1 beta decreases plasma thyroid hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone levels in rats. Impairment of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in rats treated with human recombinant tumor necrosis factor-alpha cachectin.

Tumor necrosis factor: a putative mediator of the sick euthyroid syndrome in man. Effects of interleukin-1 beta on thyrotropin secretion and thyroid hormone uptake in cultured rat anterior pituitary cells. Melmed S.

Intrinsic pituitary interleukin-1 beta is induced by bacterial lipopolysaccharide. An interleukinalpha-like neuronal system in the preoptic-hypothalamic region and its induction by bacterial lipopolysaccharide in concentrations which alter pituitary hormone release.

Interleukin 6 effects on the pituitary-thyroid axis in the rat. Different effects of continuous infusion of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 on the hypothalamic-hypophysial-thyroid axis. Effects of proinflammatory cytokines on anterior pituitary 5'- deiodinase type I and type II. Production of interleukin-6 by folliculo-stellate cells of the anterior pituitary gland in a histiotypic cell aggregate culture system. Production of interleukin-6 by anterior pituitary cells in vitro. Ultra short-loop feedback control of thyrotropin secretion.

Cloning and expression of a brain-derived TSH receptor. The expression of thyrotropin receptor in the brain. Expression of the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in the folliculo- stellate cells of the human anterior pituitary. Concanavalin-A, lentil, and ricin lectin affinity binding characteristics of human thyrotropin: differences in the sialylation of thyrotropin in sera of euthyroid, primary, and central hypothyroid patients.

Variable carbohydrate structures of circulating thyrotropin as studied by lectin affinity chromatography in different clinical conditions. Wartofsky L, Dickey RA. The evidence for a narrower thyrotropin reference range is compelling. The thyrotropin reference range should remain unchanged. Age-specific distribution of serum thyrotropin and antithyroid antibodies in the US population: implications for the prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism.

Surks MI, Boucai L. Age- and race-based serum thyrotropin reference limits. The aging thyroid. Major genetic influence on the regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis: a study of healthy Danish twins. Phosphodiesterase 8B gene variants are associated with serum TSH levels and thyroid function. Endocrine and immunohistochemical studies on thyrotropin TSH -secreting pituitary adenomas: responses of TSH, alpha-subunit, and growth hormone to hypothalamic releasing hormones and their distribution in adenoma cells.

Inappropriate secretion of thyrotropin by the pituitary. Glycoprotein hormone alpha-subunit in pituitary adenomas. Trends Endocrinol Metab. Thyrotropin secretion in thyrotoxic and thyroxine-treated patients: assessment by a sensitive immunoenzymometric assay. Applications of a new chemiluminometric thyrotropin assay to subnormal measurement.

Pulsatile secretion of thyrotropin in man. Circadian and pulsatile thyrotropin secretion in euthyroid man under the influence of thyroid hormone and glucocorticoid administration. Physiological regulation of circadian and pulsatile thyrotropin secretion in normal man and woman. Copulsatile release of thyrotropin and prolactin in normal and hypothyroid subjects. Weeke J. Circadian variation of the serum thyrotropin level in normal subjects. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. Effect of normal and reversed sleep-wake cycles upon nyctohemeral rhythmicity of plasma thyrotropin: evidence suggestive of an inhibitory influence in sleep.

Effect of hour sleep deprivation on the circadian waveform of thyrotropin TSH : further evidence of sleep-related inhibition of TSH release. Central nervous system control of thyrotropin secretion during sleep and wakefulness. Diurnal thyrotropin secretion in short-term profound primary hypothyroidism: does it ever persist? Low serum triiodothyronine and high serum reverse triiodothyronine in old age: an effect of disease not age.

Low serum thyrotropin thyroid-stimulating hormone in older persons without hyperthyroidism. Arch Intern Med. Barbesino G. Balsam A, Ingbar SH. Observations on the factors that control the generation of triiodothyronine from thyroxine in rat liver and the nature of the defect induced by fasting.

The role of sulfhydryl groups on the impaired hepatic 3',3,5-triiodothyronine generation from thyroxine in the hypothyroid, starved, fetal, and neonatal rodent. Comparison of thyroxine and 3,3',5'-triiodothyronine metabolism in rat kidney and liver homogenates. Decreased serum triiodothyronine in starving rats is due primarily to diminished thyroidal secretion of thyroxine. Wartofsky L, Burman KD. Alterations in thyroid function in patients with systemic illness: the "euthyroid sick syndrome".

Rapid adaptations of serum thyrotrophin, triiodothyronine and reverse triiodothyronine levels to short-term starvation and refeeding. Suppression of thyrotropin in the low-thyroxine state of severe nonthyroidal illness. Samuels MH, Kramer P. Differential effects of short-term fasting on pulsatile thyrotropin, gonadotropin, and alpha-subunit secretion in healthy men--a clinical research center study.